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HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH

FOR EDUCATIONAL

COMMUNICATIONS AND

TECHNOLOGY

A PROJECT OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR EDUCATIONAL

COMMUNICATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY

EDITED BY

DAVID H. JONASSEN

Macmillan LIBRARY Reference USA

Simon & Schuster Macmillan

New York

Prentice Hall International London Mexico City New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto

13.6 RESEARCH RELATED TO MEDIA IN DISTANCE EDUCATION

Much of the early research in distance education focused on comparisons between delivery media such as television, video, or computer and traditional face-to-face teaching. Other research compared the effectiveness of one distance delivery medium over another. Most of these media comparison studies (see 4.3.4.2) found no significant differences (NSD) in learning (Boswell, Mocker & Ramlin, 1968; Chu & Schramm, 1967; Chute, Bruning & Hulick, 1984; Hoyt & Frye, 1972; Kruh, 1983; Whittington, 1987). Critiquing these early media comparison studies, Spenser (1991) points out that they tended to report comparative statistics that gave no indication of the size of differences, if any, between the types of instruction. Conclusions tended to be based on the presence or absence of a statistically significant result. "When groups of research were reviewed there was a tendency to use a 'box score' tally approach, frequently resulting in a small number of studies favoring the innovation, a similar number favoring the traditional approach, and the vast majority showing NSD" (p.13).

Whatever methods have been used to report the results of media comparison studies and their instructional impact, these studies have yielded very little useful guidance for distance education practice. This prompted Clark (1984) to make the following observation: "Learning gains come from adequate instructional design theory and practice, not from the medium used to deliver instruction" (p. 3).

Although Clark's statement has been debated (Kozma, 994), educational technologists agree that the quality of the instructional design has a significant impact on learning. It is time, therefore, to move away from media comparison studies that often yield no significant differences and begin to examine factors such as instructional design, learning and instructional theory, and theoretical frameworks in distance education, which when applied to learning, might account for significant differences in levels of performance. The questions that need to be asked are not which medium works best, but rather how best to incorporate media attributes into the design of effective instruction for learning. Studies that compare two different instructional designs using the same medium may yield more useful results for practice than simple media comparisons. Little research has been done to examine what happens in the learning process when students interact with various technologies.

Research in the area of distance education falls into areas of traditional and exploratory research. Traditional research occurs within the field and is reported in the distance education literature. Exploratory research is often interdisciplinary and found in related literature. It is frequently the result of interest in educational application of newer technologies in various related disciplines.

The traditional research literature in distance education is brief and inconclusive. Both quantitative and qualitative studies have generally lacked rigor. Driven by practice, much research has taken the form of program evaluation, descriptions of individual distance education programs, brief case studies, institutional surveys, and speculative reports. Although well-reported case studies offer valuable insights for further investigation, the literature in distance education lacks rich qualitative information or programmatic experimental research that would lead to testing of research hypotheses. Also, because of the international nature of the field, research is reported in international journals, many of which are not peer reviewed. A number of research reports are gene rated by governmental agencies and institutions responsible for large-scale distance delivery programs. These may be proprietary and are often not readily available.

Much traditional research in distance education has focused on issues of technology. More than 23% of the literature reviewed concerned issues related to technology and the role of the distance educator. As we said, most of those related to technology were media comparison studies that resulted in no significant difference. Issues concerning new technological advancements were most frequently a concern of North American writers.

13.6.1 Research Development

Scholars have approached the question of distance education research in a variety of ways. Coldeway (1990) notes that researchers in the field have not tested the various theories

that have been advanced, and hypotheses have not been identified for experimental research. Re calls for the development of a research base using, for example, Keller's Personalized System of Instruction to build a baseline of data for distance education research. Shale (1990) comments that research within the field is not productive because the field has limited itself to studies of past and present practices that look at '~distance" as the significant concept. Re calls for an examination of broader issues in education that look at communication technologies as part of education at a distance. He cautions that:

In sum, distance education ought to be regarded as education at a distance. All of what constitutes the process of education when teacher and student are able to meet face-to-face also constitutes the process of education when teacher and student are physically separated (p.334).

This view has not been popular within the distance education community. However, it has become apparent that more significant research dealing with variables that affect distance learners is being done outside of distance education than within it. Model studies, often exploratory, are appearing not within traditional distance education literature, but across disciplines where researchers are examining the interaction of learners with newly developing technologies. Nonetheless, there are a number of significant research studies both in traditional and exploratory areas of distance education.

A few recent studies have attempted to examine learning style variables and the media and methods used in distance education. Davie (1987) conducted a study of the interaction of learning styles (as measured by the Kolb instrument) and computer-mediated communication (see Chapter 14), and noted the need to conduct similar studies using larger samples and the importance of examining the relationship of learning style to student achievement. Gunawardena and Boverie (1992) conducted a study that examined the interaction of learning styles and media, method of instruction, and group functioning in distance learning classes that used audiographics conferencing as the predominant delivery medium. The learning style instrument used for this study was the Kolb LSI (1985). The major finding of this study was that learning styles do not impact how students interact with media and methods of instruction, their instructor, or other learners. But learning styles do affect satisfaction with activities involving other learners. Accommodators appear the most satisfied and Divergers the least satisfied with class discussions and group activities. Class type, whether students were on campus or off campus, rather than learning styles impacted student satisfaction with media, methods, learner-instructor interaction, learner-learner interaction, group satisfaction, goal setting, and group climate. The results of this study cannot be generalized because of the small sample in the distance class. The authors suggest that further research involving larger samples is necessary to validate these results.

13.6.2 Research and Technology

Garrison (1990) begins the discussion of technology with this statement:

Distance education is inexorably linked to the technology of delivery. It can be seen as a set of instructional methods based largely on mediated communication capable of extending the influence of the educator beyond the formal institutional setting for the purpose of benefiting the learner through appropriate guidance and support. Without technology, a future for distance education does not exist (p.45).

Most distance education programs today require the use of technology, and many authors (Baker, 1989; Clark, 1989; Stubbs & Burnham, 1990) are calling for revised evaluation techniques. In 1983, Clark startled the educational community with his statement that there is nothing intrinsic to technology that makes the slightest difference to student achievement. Hoko (1986) agreed with Clark in his hypothesis that there is no distinct advantage to one medium over another. Six years later, however, Clark (1989) called for an evaluation plan to determine both the basic needs of students and instructors and the technological components that mesh with those needs. Baker (1989) went a step further by saying that the evaluation process must be ongoing. As each new technology emerges, evaluation of that technology should be done prior to and throughout its implementation.

Stubbs and Burnham (1990) take a slightly different view. They argue that most media evaluation models like the Reiser and Gagne model (Reiser & Gagne, 1983) do not deal with critical dimensions of distance education. In distance education, media provide primary rather than secondary materials for learning. Winn (1990) suggests that the technology chosen for instruction may not affect the eventual achievement outcome, but "it greatly affects the efficiency with which instruction can be delivered" (p.53). Distance education developers, worldwide, face the challenge of selecting the most efficient medium for delivery of instruction. Wagner (~990) believes that as technologies become more complex-i.e., interactive television, computer-based instruction, and teleconferencing-the need to be more accountable and effective when selecting and utilizing instructional delivery systems becomes increasingly more important.

Early distance education programs relied primarily on print materials for instruction. This format is still the medium of choice in places like Spain and Latin America where the cost of broadcast television is considered prohibitive (Garrido, 1991). Numerous texts and didactic guides are published yearly by the National University for Distance Education (NUDE) located in Spain. In addition to the print material, Spain and Latin America now supplement the printed material with a series of daily radio broadcasts from Radio Nacional de Esparia. Spain and Latin America are not alone in their widespread use of print material. Garrido's article also includes Venezuela, which only recently instituted, on a limited basis, both television and audiocassette delivery systems to supplement text-based instruction. Costa Rica has a similar program in operation (Garrison, 1990). While many countries must rely on print to disseminate instruction, Turkey and other developing countries with large communication infrastructures already in place use broadcast television (Mclsaac, 1990). As distance education increases worldwide, the need for continued modern delivery systems will continue (Winn, 1990).

Much of the literature originating in the United States, though not in other countries, discusses the advancement of technology to facilitate the delivery of distance education. Computer-assisted learning (CAL) (see 12.23) and computer conferencing (see Chapter 14) lead the list for the number of articles. One reason may be that CAL and computer conferencing have allowed a shift from individualized, self-directed learning to collaborative learning (Lauzon & Moore, 1989). Additionally, Lauzon and Moore report that CAL meets the diverse needs and characteristics of adult learners by providing the opportunity for the learner to control and pace the instruction. Qualitative research by Cheng, Lehman, and Armstrong (1991) supports the effectiveness of CAL and reports CAL to be "an effective teletraining device for academic institutions" (p.63). Abrioux (1991), however, sees CAL as a somewhat questionable technological application. His research on language acquisition foreshadowed a need for student-to-student and student-to-instructor interaction. Abrioux also questions the cost effectiveness of CAL in terms of student achievement. While CAL was once viewed as one student working with material presented by one computer, advances in technology have allowed linkage of many computers and many students. This linkage is often entitled computer conferencing.

In their discussion of computer conferencing, Davie and Wells (1991) support the need for interaction. They describe one of computer conferencing's most frequently cited characteristics as being its many-to-many capability. Computer conferencing is an ideal communication tool for bridging time and space among those who share similar interests. Lauzon and Moore (1989) note that computer conferencing is "effective in removing the barriers of time and space as constraints on communication" (p.40). Their article goes on to describe "on-line communities that will be instrumental in the realization of a 'learning society' by transforming current distance education systems into on-line educational communities" (p.40). Harasim (1990) observes that because of the democratic openness of the computer conference environment, all students have an equal opportunity to contribute. Although the majority of literature on computer conferencing is positive, Harasim continues her response to computer conferencing by pointing out several opposing features. She reports that class members have difficulty reading the computer screens and following a variety of on-line, visual cues. She also cautions that distance educators should review the amount of material students are required to read both on and off the

computer screen. While these comments are precautionary and important to both students and instructors in distance education, an overall view of the literature indicates that the positive benefits of CAL and computer conferencing appear to outweigh the disadvantages.

A second technology often cited in current literature is interactive television with two-way audio and two-way video capabilities. Although the majority of literature reviewed interactive projects within the United States, CoIlis (1991) reports from the DELTA Project (Developing European Learning Through Technological Advance) that nearly all of the countries involved expressed a need for modern interactive technology in Europe's future distance education projects. A further comment calls for teamwork and interaction. "The learning system should be capable of supporting team work in the classroom or between learners at different locations, enabling work material to be exchanged between and displayed at other locations (von Stachelsky, 1991, p.9). Canada has joined the United States and the countries involved with the DELTA Project in selecting interactive television technology because of its interactive modality for students and instructors (Helm, 1989). The term interaction in the literature does not exclusively refer to a two-way technologically mediated exchange. Cost factors, coupled with lack of access to the necessary components of interactive television, have led several institutions to give "interactive" a less mechanically oriented definition. The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (Harasim, 1990), Nova University (Scigliano, Joslyn & Levin, 1989), and the Dutch Open University (Meurs & Bouhuijs, 1989) all facilitate interaction by combining face-to-face meetings with computer-assisted learning (Davie & Wells, 1991). Regardless of how interaction is defined, its importance cannot be underestimated, especially in the realm of distance education (Harasim, 1990).

Television, another often cited technology, is becoming a widely used medium due to the availability of satellites, both in Europe and China. China's satellite television-based multimedia education system is the largest in the world (Gao, 1991). Gao continues by stating that, with a population of 1.2 billion people, Chinese satellite television is the only technology capable of reaching so many people and meeting their educational needs. Germany's academic Society for Adult Further Education based in Stuttgart also uses satellite television to disseminate instruction throughout Germany (Hawlrridge, 1991).

Technologies come in many packages, says Garrison (1989), but each must be scrutinized for its effect on the achievement of the learner, for its costs, and for the environmental conditions necessary for its implementation. Administrators of distance education should not attend exclusively to the issues related to technology. Research is needed to identify how technology interacts with students and how it affects teaching and learning.

Areas of interest to researchers in distance education have been categorized in a variety of ways. The International

Centre for Distance Learning (ICDL) at the British Open University, the largest single database of distance learning literature, has divided topics in distance education into theory, student psychology and motivation, administration and support, curriculum development, teaching materials and resources, and institutions and staff.

13.6.3 Research and Students

Although studies focusing on learners have received attention in the literature (18%), it is largely descriptive. Research-based articles, however, can be found in works by Tovar (1989), Wilkinson and Sherman (1990), and Baynton (1992). Aslanian and Brickell's (1988) qualitative research offers a very extensive profile of the distance education student in America. Their findings are congruent with international programs, although the international research is generally empirical. Nearly one-fourth of the literature reviewed about students calls for student-instructor interaction in order to decrease anxiety and increase motivation. The need for interaction is additionally associated with the selection and implementation of specific media within the distance education course.

As a form of nontraditional education, distance education serves mainly adults, and those adult students possess unique needs, motivations, goals, and self-concepts. In a qualitative study with 1,000 adults, Aslanian and Brickell (1988) developed a profile of an adult distance education learner. They found that, in general, the students are married (61%), female (58%), part-time students (80%), employed full time (71%), and paying for their own schooling (60%). Of the adults surveyed, 75% were between the ages of 25 and 44 years of age. Apt and Enert (1983) compiled student characteristics at six open-learning programs and found similar results. International results were found to be congruent in work done by Van Enckevort, Harry, Marin, and Schultz (1987) at four European distance education universities. Administration, instructors, and curriculum designers must take the needs of the adult student population into account when proposing theoretical and andragogically based instruction designed for distance education programs (Verduin & Clark, 1991).

The adult student generally enters the learning environment, whether traditional or distant, with a high degree of motivation (Ehrman, 1990). Knowles's (1984) learner-focused theory of andragogy suggests that much intentional learning activity of adults is motivated by their desire to move from their current level of proficiency to a new, higher level. Verduin and Clark (1991) agree with both Knowles and Ehrman: "Discrepancies between adults' current level and desired proficiency level directly affect motivation and achievement in both learning activities and life roles" (p.25).

Although adults possess a high degree of motivation, the technology associated with distance education, coupled with the distance separating the student and instructor,

leads to high degrees of anxiety. Anxiety in learning has occasionally been described as helpful, but more often treated in terms of its negative affects (Aggasiz, 1971). A negative view of anxiety comes from Darke (1988), who believes that anxiety can debilitate cognitive processing. The importance of student anxiety cannot be underestimated in facilitating two-way interaction between students and instructors in the distance education setting. The painful anxieties that learners experience in any instructional setting tend to be exacerbated when that learning is mediated by technology (Garrison, 1989).

Other distance education researchers (Keegan, 1988; Lewis, 1988) have questioned the need for too much student/instructor interaction. They see a large amount of interaction as inhibiting the independence of the learner. Although distance education is premised on creating the potential for greater independence for the learner, it is often 'just as confining and inflexible as other forms of education" (Lewis, 1988, p.9). Sewart (1987) suggests that distance education students, perhaps, have greater freedom, but with that freedom comes responsibilities. Freedom demands that the student make a number of important decisions that would normally be made for him:

It is an interesting and perhaps sometimes infuriating paradox; this provision of flexibility to cater for individuals needs inevitably results in increasing complexity of administrative and organizational procedures which may present the student with problems (Sewart, 1987, p.168).

13.6.4 Instruction and Learner Support

The issue of learner support has received wide attention in distance education. The research, however, has been varied and inconclusive. After examining 107 articles to determine whether there were predictors of successful student support, Dillon and Blanchard (1991) conclude that the reported research was mixed. They propose a model to examine the support needs of the distance student, related to institutional characteristics, course content, and the technology. In a study analyzing learner support services in a statewide distance education system, Dillon, Gunawardena, and Parker (1992) outline the function and effectiveness of one learner support system and make recommendations for examining student program interactions. Feasley (1991) comments that although research on student support falls largely into the evaluation category, there are some very useful case studies and institutional surveys such as reports issued by Fern Universitat and National Home Study Council which summarize statistics about student services for a number of institutions. Wright (1991) comments that the largest number of studies related to student support have been conducted outside the United States with large distance education programs. The student support activities reported are pre-enrollment activities and tutorial services, as well as counseling and advising services.

In addition to student support. several ethical and administrative issues related to students are repeated in the current literature as well. The mediation of technology coupled with the distance between instructor and student poses questions related to admission, counseling, and retention. Reed and Sork (1990) provide evidence that admission criteria and intake systems should take into account the unique demands of the adult learner (i.e., motivation, anxiety, interactions, and learning style). Nelson (1988) states that admission requirements should consider the effects of the individual's cognitive styles, as these often affect student achievement in programs characterized by mediated communications and limited personal contact.

Combined with the institutions' responsibilities related to admissions procedures is the responsibility of counseling students into and out of programs where the learner and advisor are physically separated (Reed & Sork, 1990). Herein two issues arise. First, the nearly impossible task of understanding the life situation of the learner when distance and time interfere with communication makes counseling a difficult task at best. Second, the monetary requirements of the distance education institution and the well-being of the student who may or may not be advised into a distance education environment must be considered. Reed and Sork (1990) observe that students counseled out of distance education represent a loss of revenue. Counseling in a traditional setting requires expertise in a number of psychological and academic areas. However, counseling from a distance is a highly complex process that calls for a variety of methods, materials, and a knowledge of adult learner characteristics (Verduin & Clark, 1991).

The recent literature has offered various profiles of the distance education student. Counseling professionals should review the research on student needs and develop new methodologies for assisting students at a distance. Additional research is called for in all areas of student interaction with the learning environment.

13.6.4.1. Learning and Characteristics of Learners.

The study of learning and characteristics of learners engages the largest number of researchers and includes studies of learning styles, attitudes, personality, locus of control, motivation, and attrition. Included are general studies about cognition and metacognition, as well as specific studies related to the particular needs of the distance learner. Many studies have been single-group evaluations, few with randomization of subjects or programmatic investigations. Some exploratory research has involved a small number of participants in short interventions. Although these efforts yield interesting insights, they have not helped solve the problem of isolating and testing variables that might predict academic success. Often, experimental studies use thin descriptions and do not provide deep contextual information. Similarly, descriptive studies often lack generalizability and are not qualitatively rich.

Research reports that do appear in the literature are often inconclusive. Reports in the literature suggest that some

combination of cognitive style, personality characteristics, and self-expectations can be predictors of success in distance education programs. It appears that those students who are most successful in distance learning situations tend to be independent, autonomous learners who prefer to control their own learning situations.

Characteristics besides independence which appear to be predictors of success are high self-expectations and self-confidence (Laube, 1992), academic accomplishment (Coggins, 1988; Dille & Mexack, 1991), and external locus of control (Baynton, 1992). Another motivation that reportedly influences academic persistence is the desire to improve employment possibilities (von Prummer, 1990). Research findings suggest that it is the combination of personal (such as learning style), environmental, and social factors that must be taken into account when predicting academic success in distance learning programs.

Verduin and Clark (1991) examined learning styles within the distance education setting and reviewed the research done on learning styles by Canfield in 1983. Canfield developed a learning style inventory that conceptualized learning styles as composed of preferred conditions, content, mode, and expectancy scores. Verduin and Clark (1991) believe this information can be helpful to educators in planning courses for students who will receive the instruction from a distance. They indicate that an understanding of how individual learners approach learning may make it possible for the distance educator to see a pattern of learning styles and plan or adjust course presentations accordingly. They conclude by saying that adults may or may not learn more easily when the style of presentation matches the students' learning style, but when the two do match, the students report being more satisfied with the course.

Perhaps the most interesting work in cognition appears outside the traditional confines of the distance education literature. Research that examines the interaction of learners and delivery media is currently being conducted with multimedia. These studies examine learning and problem solving in asynchronous, virtual environments in which the learner is encouraged to progress and interact with learning materials in a very individual way. In the Jasper experiment (see 12.3.2.2), for example, math problems are anchored in authentic real-world situations portrayed on videodisc (Van Haneghan, Barron, Young, Williams, Vye & Bransford, 1992). It was hypothesized that the attributes of videodisc, which allow the portrayal of rich audio and visual images of a problem situation, would enhance the problem-solving abilities of learners. Research results showed significant gains for the video-based group over the text-based group, not only in solving the original Jasper problems but also in identifying and solving similar and related problems. The rich video-based format context was found to simulate a real-world context for problem solving (Van Haneghan et al., 1992). In a similar vein, the Young Children's literacy project uses a Vygotsky scaffolding approach to support the

construction of mental model-building skills for listening and storytelling (Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1991). Programs like Jasper and the Young Children's literacy project provide robust sensory environments for developing metacognitive strategies and participating in critical thinking. These cognitive approaches to teaching abstract thinking skills have found fertile ground in the design and development of multimedia programs.

Individualized instruction delivered in multimedia settings has begun to blur the distinction between distance education and traditional education. The use of computer technologies to enhance thinking has generated interest in all areas of the curriculum. Researchers are examining ways to decontextualize classroom learning by anchoring and situating problems to be solved as real-life events (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). Collaborative interactions between learner and technology have caused cognitive psychologists to reexamine the effects of computer technology on intellectual performance. Salomon, Perkins, and Globerson (1991) call on educators to investigate the learning activities that new technologies promote. They argue that it is this collaborative cognitive processing between intelligent technology and learner which may have the potential for affecting human intellectual performance.

The authors make the distinction between effects with technology, in which the learner enters into a partnership in which the technology assumes part of the intellectual burden of processing information (calculator), and effects of technology (see 24.3.5) and related transfer of skills. The former role of technology is what has been referred to by Pea (1993) as distributed cognition (see 24.3.8). The distributed model of cognition has its roots in the cultural-historical tradition and is reflected in the work of Luria (1979) and Vygotsky (1978). This view of the distribution of cognition from a cultural-historical perspective maintains that learning is not an individual process but is part of a larger activity that involves the teacher, pupil, and cultural artifacts of the classroom. Knowledge does not reside with an individual alone but is distributed among the tools and artifacts of the culture. The technologies of today have created graphic interfaces that offer symbiotic and virtual environments distributed between human and machine.

One example of such a symbiotic environment is a computer conference network called the WELL. It is a '~virtual community" where people meet, converse, and socialize. This "digital watering hole for information-age hunters and gatherers" has developed into a unique social and communication phenomenon (Rheingold, 1993). It functions as caf~, beauty shop, town square, pub, lecture hall, and library. In short, it is a network of communications in cyberspace, a true virtual community. The social and cultural ramifications of this type of community, which functions in cognitive and social space rather than geographic space, has vast implications for research in distance education.

These new learning environments are distance learning settings, and they prompt researchers to ask further questions:

How do these environments enhance cognitive activities? Which personal learning-style factors are important to consider in designing interactive materials for effective instruction? Can we predict which program elements are likely to enhance student learning?

13.6.5 Course Design and Communications

A number of research studies have been conducted around the issues of designing course material for distance education. A brief review of the literature reveals that the most frequently expressed concern in courses designed for distance learners has to do with providing the learner with adequate feedback (Howard, 1987; McCleary & Eagan, 1989). Learner feedback is listed as one of the five most important considerations in course design and instruction, and it is identified by Howard as the most significant component in his model for effective course design.

Other major issues that relate to course design are effective instructional design, selection of appropriate media based on instructional needs, basic evaluation, and programmatic research. There appears to be little reported systematic research in this area because of the time and costs involved in conducting such large-scale projects. McCleary and Egan (1989) examined course design and found that their second and third courses received higher ratings as a result of improving three elements of course design, one of which was feedback. In a review of the research, Dwyer (1991) proposes the use of instructional consistency/congruency paradigms when designing distance education materials in order to pair content of material with level of learners' ability. Others suggest models combining cognitive complexity, intellectual activity, and forms of instruction for integrating the use of technology in course delivery.

Although consideration is given in the literature to elements of course design such as interactivity, student support, media selection, instructional design issues, and feedback, little research has been reported other than evaluative studies, Pew are generalizable to global situations. Although course design is a primary component of large-scale international distance education programs, little attention has been paid to the underlying social and cultural assumptions within which such instruction is designed. Critical theorists have examined how teaching materials and classroom practices reflect social assumptions of validity, authority, and empowerment. Although the thread of critical theory (see Chapter 9) has woven its way through the fabric of the literature in education, nowhere is it more important to examine educational assumptions underlying course design than in distance education.

Courses designed for distance delivery often cost thousands of dollars to produce and reach hundreds of thousands of students. Not only are hidden curricula in the classroom well documented, there is a growing body of evidence in the literature which critically analyzes the impact of social norms on the production of educational media. In their book, Ellsworth and Whatley (1990) examine the

ways in which particular historical and social perspectives combine to produce images in educational media that serve the interests of a particular social and historical interpretation of values. Distance learning materials are designed to rely heavily on visual materials to maintain student interest. Film, video, and still photography should no longer be viewed as neutral carriers of information. In a seminal book of readings, Hlynka and Belland (1991) explore critical inquiry in the field of educational technology as a third paradigm, equally as important as the qualitative and quantitative perspectives. This collection of essays encourages instructional designers to examine issues in educational media and technology using paradigms drawn from the humanities and social sciences and sociology and anthropology.

The examination of issues concerning the use of technology is especially important when designing courses for distance education. There are six factors that are particularly critical and need to be considered. In order to distinguish the characteristics of the communications technologies currently being used in distance education, it is necessary to adopt a classification system, although any classification system may not remain current for very long with the constant development of new technologies.

13.6.5.1. Media and Course Design. Several classification models have been developed to describe the technologies used in distance education (Barker, Frisbie & Patrick, 1989; Bates, 1991; Johansen, Martin, Mittman & Saffo, 1991). In a recent attempt to classify the media used in distance education, Bates (1993) notes that there should be two distinctions. The first is that it is important to make a distinction between '~media" and ~technology." Media are the forms of communication associated with particular ways of representing knowledge. Therefore, each medium has its unique way of presenting knowledge and organizing it, which is reflected in particular formats or styles of presentation. Bates (1993) notes that in distance education, the most important four media are text, audio, television, and computing. Each medium, however, can usually be carried by more than one technology. For example, the audio medium can be carried by audiocassettes, radio, and telephone, while the television medium can be carried by broadcasting, videocassettes, videodiscs, cable, satellite, fiber optics, ITFS, and microwave. In other words, a variety of different technologies may be used to deliver one medium. The second distinction is the one between primarily one-way and primarily two-way technologies. One-way technologies, such as radio and broadcast television, do not provide opportunities for interaction, while two-way technologies, such as videoconferencing or interactive television, allow for interaction between learners and instructors and among learners themselves.

For the purpose of this chapter, we would like to expand on a definition adopted by Willen (1988), who noted that where distance teaching and learning are concerned, three characteristics have proved critical to the optimization of the study situation: (a) the ability of the medium to reach all learners, or provide access; (b) the flexibility of the medium; and (c) the two-way communication capability of

the medium. We feel that it is necessary to expand these three characteristics to include three others: the symbolic characteristics of the medium, the social presence conveyed by the medium, and the human-machine interface for a particular technology. Whatever classification system is used to describe the technologies, we feel that six important characteristics need to be kept in mind in the adoption and use of these technologies for distance education:

1. Delivery and access: the way in which the technology distributes the learning material to distance learners and the location to which it is distributed-homes, places of work, or local study centers. Student access to technologies in order to participate in the learning process is an important consideration.

2. Control: the extent to which the learner has control over the medium (the extent to which the medium provides flexibility in allowing the students to use it at a time and place and in a manner which suits them best). For example, the advantage of using videocassettes over broadcast television is that students can exercise "control" over the programming by using the stop, rewind, replay, and fast-forward features to proceed at their own pace. Videocassettes are also a very flexible medium allowing students to use the cassettes at a time that is suitable to them.

3. Interaction: the degree to which the technology permits interaction (two-way communication) between the teacher and the student, and among students. Technologies utilized for distance education can be classified as one-way transmission, or two-way interactive technologies. One-way transmission media include printed texts and materials, radio programs, open broadcast or cablecast television programs, and audiocassettes and videocassettes. Technologies that permit two-way interaction can be classified as either synchronous (real-time communication) or asynchronous (time-delayed communication) systems (see 14.2.3). Audio teleconferencing, audiographics teleconferencing, video teleconferencing, interactive television, and real-time computer chatting-when two or more computers are linked so that participants can talk to each other at the same time-are synchronous technologies that permit real-time, two-way communication. Computer-mediated communications (CMC)-including electronic mail (e-mail), bulletin boards, and computer conferencing-when used in a time-delayed fashion, are asynchronous technologies that permit two-way communication (see Chapter 14).

4. Symbolic (or audiovisual) characteristics of the medium: Salomon (1979) distinguishes between three kinds of symbol systems: iconic, digital, and analog. Iconic systems use pictorial representation; digital systems convey meaning by written language, musical notation, and mathematical symbols; and analog systems are made up of continuous elements that nevertheless have reorganized meaning and forms, such as voice quality, performed music, and dance. Television, for example, uses all three coding systems to convey a message. Salomon (1979) observes that it is the symbol system that a medium embodies rather than its other characteristics that may relate more directly to cognition and

learning. "A code can activate a skiH, it can short-circuit it, or it can overtly supplant it" (Salomon, 1979, p. ~34).

5. The social presence created by the medium: Telecommunication systems, even two-way video and audio systems that permit the transmission of facial expressions and gestures, create social climates that are very different from the traditional classroom. Short et al. (1976) define social presence as the "degree of salience of the other person in the interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships (p.65). This means the degree to which a person is perceived as a "real person" in mediated communication. They define social presence as a quality of the medium itself, and hypothesize that communications media vary in their degree of social presence, and that these variations are important in determining the way individuals interact. The capacity of the medium to transmit information about facial expression, direction of looking, posture, dress, and nonverbal vocal cues, all contribute to the degree of social presence of a communications medium. Two concepts associated with social presence are intimacy" and "immediacy." Short et al. (1976) suggest that the social presence of the communications medium contributes to the level of intimacy, which depends on factors such as physical distance, eye contact, smiling, and personal topics of conversation. They observe that the use of television rather than audio-only communication makes for greater intimacy, other things being equal. Immediacy is a measure of the psychological distance that a communicator puts between himself or herself and the object of his or her communication. A person can convey immediacy or non-immediacy non verbally (physical proximity, formality of dress, and facial expression) as well as verbally. Therefore, social presence can be conveyed both by the medium-video can convey a higher degree of social presence than audio-and by the people who are involved in using the medium for interaction-instructors who humanize the classroom climate may convey a higher degree of social presence than those who do not. A recent study (Gunawardena, Campbell Gibson, Cochenour, Dean, Dillon, Hessmiller et al., 1994) examines the concept of social presence in distance education and analyzes student perceptions of two media: audio-graphics and computer conferencing.

6. Hi~man-machine interface for a particular technology that takes into consideration how the equipment interfaces with the end users: The learner must interact with the interface or the technological medium in order to interact with the content, instructor, and other learners. This may include an activity, such as pushing the press-to-talk bar on some microphones, or learning to use a graphics tablet to communicate graphically in an audio-graphics system. With the rapid growth of new telecommunications technologies, ergonomics (design of human-machine interfaces) has become an important area of research and development within the broader area of research related to human factors. The kinds of interfaces the technology employs has implications for the kind of training or orientation that both teachers and students must receive in order to be competent users of the medium.

When selecting technologies for a distance learning program, or when designing instruction for distance learning, these six factors need to be kept in mind. They are not entities in and of themselves but interact with each other to make up the total environment in which a specific medium operates. Figure 13-2 indicates this interaction.

The evolution of geographic space into cyberspace has profound implications for communication, instruction, and the design of the instructional message.

13.6.5.2. Course Design and the International Market. Issues that examine course design in distance education cross geographic boundaries. Courses that are produced in North America are exported across the world. There is a widespread belief that Western technologies, particularly the computer, are culturally neutral and can be used to modernize traditional societies. When distance education programs are delivered to developing countries, cultural differences are often dealt with by simply translating the existing software, or by writing new software in the local language. What remains is still instruction based on a set of cultural assumptions emphasizing the view that Western technology and science represent the most advanced stage in cultural evolution. This rationalist, secularist, and individualist philosophy remains at the tacit level and suggests that, for any country, true modernization relies on the scientific method and the adoption of culture-free technology. The imported technology boasts capabilities based on assumptions that are frequently in direct opposition to traditions and social practices in the local culture.

Critical theorists (see Chapter 9), and others, have engaged in the debate over obvious discrepancies between the ideal Western view of life and the reality of deteriorating social fabric, loss of traditional values, high crime and drug rates, and other visible social ills. The Western view of modernization and progress have not been universally accepted as ideal. However, by embracing new communi~ communication technologies, non-Western countries are buying into a new set of cultural assumptions. The danger is that this may occur at the cost of their own indigenous traditions.

Delivery

& Access

Control

Human- machine Interface

Interaction

Social presence

Symbolic characteristics

Figure 13-2. Factors impacting selection and use of distance education technologies.

UNESCO has argued that when urban, individualistic images of life are part of the cultural agendas of Western media, people in developing countries will aspire to these to be modern. The long-term effects of technological innovations on cultural traditions have not yet been well documented. It may be that, in racing to embrace modernism and technological innovations, social and traditional patterns of life will be altered to the extent that local traditions may be irrevocably changed. The cultural values of individualism, secularism, and feminism are not all recognized as desirable in other cultures that place higher values on religion, group efforts, and well-defined gender roles (Mclsaac, 1993). Course materials designed with a particular cultural bias embedded in the instruction may have a negative effect on learning.

Moral issues surrounding loss of local culture can result from wholesale importation of foreign values. At the minimum, educators engaged in technology transfer should analyze local social customs and consider those customs, whenever possible. Such social conventions as extended hospitality, differing perceptions of time, and the perceived importance of the technology project can all affect the credibility of the program and, ultimately, its success (Mclsaac & Koymen, 1988).

Course designers should first determine the underlying assumptions conveyed by the educational message being designed. Designers should consider the social and political setting in which the lessons will be used. They should determine whether the instructional design model has implicit cultural and social bias. And, finally, tacit messages and hidden agendas should be examined and eliminated wherever possible so that course materials do not reflect particular ideological points of view. Distance education research in course design should include programs of social research that explore the effects of technological innovations on cultural traditions.

13.6.6 Issues Related to Teaching

Studies that examine teaching in distance education address the developing role of the instructor, the need for decreasing resistance as traditional educators begin to use distance delivery systems, and, finally, faculty attitude toward the use of technology. Altered roles for faculty who teach in distance education settings is a common thread found throughout the literature. Sammons (1989) sees a need for definition of the role of teacher. He stresses that without this definition, prepackaged, mass distribution of education will result. Holmberg's (1989) theory of guided didactic conversation suggests that a relationship exists between the faculty's role in the conversation and student performance Smith's (1991) qualitative study places students' involvement at the center of the foundation for distance education 't

teaching activities. The extent to which faculty roles are modified by the distance education environment is related to how the technology is used (Dillon & Walsh, 1992).

Some educators express concern that the use of packaged television courses creates negative consequences for mediated instruction. Sammons (1989) notes that the teaching role is an interactive, social process and questions whether presenting a telecourse or mass producing learning material for presentation at a distance is teaching. Peters (1983) lends an organizational perspective in his comparison of distance teaching to an industrial enterprise. He reports on the mass production of learning materials, mechanization, automation, quality control, and other operational activities. According to Peters, the teacher need not teach in a personal, face-to-face mode but rather should provide cost-effective instruction that can reach large numbers of students.

The emergence of increasingly student-centered learning activities of the 1970s, facilitated by technology in the 1980s, is contributing to an evolution of the role of faculty in the 1990s (Beaudoin, 1990). In particular, the increase in distance education enrollment will profoundly impact faculty members' instructional roles. Rather than transmit information in person, many faculty will have to make the adjustment to monitoring and facilitating the work of geographically distant learners (Bates, 1991). Faculty accustomed to the more conventional teaching roles will be required to accommodate new skills and assume expanding roles (Kember & Murphy, 1990).

This role shift from the European model of teacher as the exclusive source of information to one of facilitator is a difficult and threatening situation for most teachers. The role of teacher is not becoming obsolete but instead is being transformed (Beaudoin, 1990). Educators, and in particular those in distance educational environments, must be proficient at both delivery of content and the operation of the technology. Beaudoin goes on to point out that the teacher's role in the 90s is becoming one of facilitator and bridge between student and the learning source (i.e., computer, television).

With new technologies being capable of delivering instruction, teachers are entering into a partnership with the technology. Garrison (1989) notes that while the teacher must be aware of the external aspects of learning, those related to the technology, it is the internal cognitive aspects of the learning experience that remain in the hands of the teacher. Ramsden (1988) sees the role of the distance education instructor as including the challenge of dialogue and interaction. "Machines," Ramsden says, "transmit information as if it were an unquestionable truth" (p.52). The teacher's role, which must include dialogue, is to challenge the seemingly unquestionable truths and to elicit meaning for the student.

Dillon and Walsh (1992) see a lack of research focus on the role adaptations of faculty, and they recommend future research on this topic. In their review of current literature, Dillon and Walsh found only 24 of 225 articles on faculty roles. Research by Garrison (1990) indicates that educators

are resistant to adaptation and to introduction of technology into previously designed ~asses. The literature suggests that faculty attitudes improve as experience with distance education increases, and as faculty become more familiar with the technology. Taylor and White (1991) support this idea in their findings of positive attitudes from faculty who have completed the first distance education class, but their study also indicates a faculty preference for face-to-face traditional teaching. The reason most often cited in their qualitative study is lack of student interaction. Additionally, Taylor and White found through interviews and surveys that faculty agree that distance teaching is not appropriate for all content areas or for all students.

There is a lack of training opportunity in distance education which could help faculty overcome anxieties about technology and might improve teacher attitudes. Most teacher in-service programs that deal with technology teach how to operate equipment, with little attention paid to the more important aspects of how to incorporate technology into instruction. Virtually none addresses the concept and practice of distance education as a unique enterprise with different techniques of instruction from the traditional classroom.

In addition to conducting research on the emerging roles of faculty involved in distance education activities, studies are needed to examine faculty attitudes. Many teachers have a natural concern that technology will replace them in the classroom. It is important, says Hawkridge (1991), for teachers in training to be stimulated to a positive attitude toward technology as a means of enhancing the quality of the human interaction, and not to see technology as a dehumanizing influence. Hawkridge is joined by other researchers who call for future study in the area of instructor role development. As technology becomes a means for future educational delivery, a new view of the profession of teaching may need to be developed.

13.6.7 Policy and Management

State and national policies on the use of telecommunication technologies for distance education have been slow to develop in the United States. Many other countries have had well-developed national plans for the implementation of distance education delivery systems over large geographic areas. Countries in which education is centralized at the national level are often those with the largest distance education enterprises. Countries in Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and Europe which have national policies for the development of distance education often use communication infrastructures that are already in place to deliver massive programs over broadcast media (Mclsaac, Murphy & Demiray, 1988). As is the case with the area of learner support, the literature in theory and policy management is concerned largely with institutional evaluation studies that are extremely useful to countries looking for prototype models for establishing large-scale programs, but the literature does not offer testable hypotheses or rich, detailed

qualitative analyses. These international evaluation reports of large-scale distance education projects raise issues of national educational priorities, funding sources, and policy determination.

In the United States. the most significant early study to be done on a large scale was Linking for Learning (Office of Technology Assessment, 1989). This report was the first to examine national and state telecommunication initiatives and make recommendations for a plan of action, based on needs of state and local schools. Because distance education in the United States is not supported by a central educational authority as in other countries, development of national and state policy is slower in developing. Key policy issues now receiving attention include: funding, equal access to high-quality education, effectiveness of educational systems, licensing of distance education programs, and equal access to delivery systems (Dirr, 1991). Donaldson (1991) calls for application of organization theory to issues of management and administration in distance education.

Finally, we might ask what conclusions we can draw from the collection of research studies in this rapidly growing area. It seems evident that research has been conducted from many perspectives and in many disciplines. As the body of research studies grows, methods such as meta-analysis can help us analyze the growing body of information. Meta-analysis, the application of qualitative and quantitative procedures for the purpose of integrating, synthesizing, and analyzing various studies, would be particularly useful (Mclsaac, 1990). Sophason and Prescott (1988) believe that single studies cannot expect to provide definitive answers to theoretical questions. Instead, a method such as metaanalysis is needed to identify underlying trends and principles emerging from the research.

13.7 INTERNATIONAL ISSUES

Distance learning delivery systems, particularly those that rely on telecommunications, have benefited from the economic growth of the industry. In 1990 alone, telecommunication equipment and services accounted for $350 billion and employed 2.8 m~lion workers. The communication industry in OECD countries has recently become an extremely profitable and competitive business with public telecommunication operators developing new integrated services digital networks (ISDNs) and satellite services. It is predicted that the increased development of high-definition television (HDTV) and mobile communications will be matched with increased deregulation and privatization of networks, increasing competition and lowering costs.

In many countries, although the existing communication infrastructure is old and dysfunctional, newer technologies are developing which will provide for the flow of information to the majority of the population through distance education delivery systems (Mclsaac, 1992). This is particularly true in the newly emerging eastern European countries

where previous communication suppliers were Sparse or nonexistent. In these situations, the newer cellular radio technologies, which can handle a greater number of users than previous fixed-link networks, may provide the answer. Such mobile technologies can be put in place with less cost than wired networks and, in addition, occupy a very small spectrum of the radio frequencies.

Although the future of new technological developments promises increased accessibility to information at low cost, this access is not without its own pitfalls. Economic power remains largely within the hands of developed countries. From an economic point of view, some disadvantages include the selection of a costly technological solution when a simpler and existing technology might suffice. Technology that must be used over long physical distances with primitive and unreliable electricity and telephone services is not in the best interest of the developing country. The most important consideration for the majority of developing countries is economic independence. It is in many of the economically developing countries that the largest distance learning projects are undertaken. A top educational priority for many such countries is to improve the cost effectiveness of education and to provide training and jobs for the general population. Researchers across the globe are calling for the establishment of national priorities for research in areas such as distance education (Jegede, 1993).

Research-based distance education programs face a number of obstacles around the world. The lack of financial resources available for conducting adequate needs assessment in many countries, particularly prior to embarking on a massive distance education plan, is a common problem (Mclsaac, 1990). In many cases, investing money in research is perceived to be unnecessary and a drain from areas in which the money is needed. Time is an additional problem, since programs are often mandated with very little start-up time. In the interest of expedience, an existing distance learning program from another country may be used and revised, but many times this does not adequately answer the needs of the specific population.

One solution to the lack of adequate resources available locally has traditionally been the donation of time and expertise by international organizations to help in developing project goals and objectives. The criticism of this approach is that visiting experts seldom have adequate time to become completely familiar with the economic, social. and political factors influencing the success of the project. A second, and more appropriate solution, has been to train local experts to research, design, and implement sound distance learning programs based on the needs of the particular economy.

Distance education and its related delivery systems are often called upon to support national educational priorities and the current political system. One goal of education, particularly in developing countries, is to support the political cal organization of the country and to develop go(~(J citizens. Distance education programs that endorse this

priority will have greater chance for success. National political philosophies and priorities are found reflected in the diversity of distance education programs around the world. These programs conform to prevailing political, social, and economic values. Research, particularly of the applied variety, is essential to avoid the trial-and-error approach that costs international distance education projects millions of dollars.

13.8 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Distance education programs will continue to grow both in the United States and abroad. One of the reasons for this growth is related to the ever-growing global need for an educated workforce, combined with financial constraints of established educational systems. Distance education offers lifelong learning potential to working adults and will play a significant part in educating societies around the world. Distance education will become of far greater importance in the United States in the years ahead because it is so cost efficient and because it allows for independent learning by working adults. If society is to cope with this growing need for an educated workforce, distance education must continue to make its place in the educational community.

Although distance education has been difficult to establish in a number of European countries, influential networks are being established to facilitate future growth. The European Association of Distance Teaching Universities (EADTU) has combined with Eurostep (which organizes educational television across Europe using satellite) and the Budapest Platform (providing satellite television to central and eastern countries) to develop a system of distance education programs throughout Europe. Distance education programs will become major components facilitating economic progress throughout the world.

Future research should focus on establishing theoretical frameworks as a basis for research and should examine the interactions of technology with teaching and ~earning. Researchers should address issues of achievement, motivation, attrition, and control.

Distance education is no longer viewed as a marginal educational activity. Instead, it is regarded internationally as a viable and cost effective way of providing individualized instruction. Recent developments in technology are erasing the lines between traditional and distance learners as more students have the opportunity to work with multimedia designed for individual and interactive learning. Print once was the primary method of instructional delivery but is now taking a backseat to modern interactive technologies.

The content of future research should:

Move beyond media comparison studies.

Examine the characteristics of the distance learner and investigate the collaborative effects of media attributes and cognition.

Explore the relationship between media and the socio-cultural construction of knowledge.

Identify course design elements effective in interactive learning Systems.

Contribute to a shared international research database.

Examine the cultural effects of technology and courseware transfer in distance education programs.

Research methodologies should:

Avoid microanalyses.

Progress beyond early descriptive studies.

Generate a substantive research base by conducting longitudinal and collaborative studies.

Identify and develop appropriate conceptual frameworks from related disciplines such as cognitive psychology, social learning theory, critical theory, communication theory, and social science theories.

Conduct thorough qualitative studies that identify the combination of personal, social, and educational elements that create a successful environment for the independent learner.

Combine qualitative and experimental methodologies, where appropriate, to enrich research findings.

Technology may be driving the rapid rise in popularity of distance education, but it is the well-designed instructional situation that allows the learner to interact with the technology in the construction of knowledge. It is the effective interaction of instructor, student, and delivery system that affords distance education its prominence within the educational community. Distance education can offer the opportunity for a research-based, practical, integration of technology, instruction and instructor creating a successful educational package.