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AN EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON OF EFFECTS OF DYNAMIC AND STATIC VISUAL DISPLAYS IN COMPUTER BASED INSTRUCTION ON DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE OF SELECTED OBJECT-ORIENTED AUTHORING SKILLS.
Animation has been used in instruction for many years and recent advances permit the creation of desk top animations by a wider range of instructors. Fifteen of 24 studies on instructional animation showed significant achievement as a result of animation. To expand our understanding of effects of animation on student learning and student reaction to it, an experimental study was conducted. A one hour lesson on using an object-oriented authoring language was developed in two formats; static visuals plus text and animation plus text. Sixty two high school students were randomly assigned to one of the treatments. The four dependent measures included declarative knowledge (immediate recall), procedural knowledge (completion of the computer task), efficiency (completion time) and confidence of the learner in the use of computers. There were no significant differences between the two groups on the four measures. On the declarative knowledge measure, which was composed of equal numbers of static and dynamic visual items, students scored significantly higher on the static display items, regardless of treatment. It is hypothesized that the incorporation of animation into student assessment protocols may handicap students who may have difficulty with an unfamiliar mode of assessment.
It is a fact that we will have increasing access to presentation and response capabilities that have never before been possible. Guidelines for the use of these capabilities are not yet available, and on the basis of the current state of research in the field, we can predict that such assistance will take time in arriving. The CAI designer, however, needs to be aware of this impending shift from text-dominated lessons to graphics-oriented presentations where it will be necessary to design new and different interactions. [Siliauskas, 1986, p. 83]
Animation is one component in what is generally referred to as multimedia. Multimedia may be defined as the components of conventional media (computer, video, graphics, animation, audio, color) along with their path to complete integration, which is now just in its infancy. Although the use of 'multi' in multimedia is redundant, it seems to have taken on a life of its own.
Educators have used the term multimedia in a global sense for years: outside the classroom the term was rarely heard. Research on individual components of multimedia was stimulated after the second World War by military interested in increasing training effectiveness and conducted by new research graduates eager to carry out the studies. Later the thrust expanded to include effects of film, static graphics, audio, animation and video on learning. Park & Hopkins [1993] classified instructional visual displays as either static, having no motion or dynamic, having motion. The latter would include video, animation, and presumably morphing.
This paper examines the multimedia component of animation through a review of the literature and a report on a research study. Research on animation is relatively new but growing; it is important not to let popularity or common misconceptions mislead us should the research support a contrarian view. Both quantity and quality of research should grow quickly as the hardware and software systems which brought us desk-top publishing and video bring desk-top animation to educators and trainers.
A Review of Instructional Graphics and Animation Research
Research Findings
Graphics in instruction is defined as any representation of an object, concept or process, as perceived through the eye, which does not rely solely on the use of text or numbers. Animation refers to the use of a series of graphics which change over time and/or space.
As was the case with color, extensive research on graphics occurred during the 1960's and 70's and has diminished in recent years. Apparently researchers believe the results attained before the advent of the microcomputer in instruction will continue to be valid with graphics delivered by computer. This argument makes the plausible assumption that the type of feature represented in instruction is more important than the number of different ways it is represented.
It was found that graphics and visuals increased the amount learned by adults [Alesandrini, 1984] and by children [Pressley, 1977]. Alesandrini and Rigney [1981] found graphics to be an effective review strategy compared with verbal strategies. In a study which examined student attitude toward graphics-based learning, Rigney and Lutz [1976] concluded that using graphics as analogies in CBI resulted in high levels of satisfaction with the learning experience.
Willows [1978] was concerned about potential interference between the messages provided by text and graphics. However with the trend to use computer based instruction for lesson delivery, one can control the presentation to avoid such conflicts. For example, turning a page of a book may reveal a graphic and text, but with computer control, the graphic can be presented first and the text held until a certain time had expired or instructions/directions to focus on the message of the graphic had been completed.
Dwyer [1970] showed that simple line drawing graphics tend to be superior to photographs or other more realistic drawings in those cases of general learning. He argued the key seems to be the degree of congruity between the elements of instruction and the learning task. For example, using a simple line drawing of a car engine to instruct in the location of the carburetor might be appropriate in terms of relevant cues, whereas detailed photographs would be more appropriate to teach about the structure and function of the carb itself. Indeed both could be used individually and the former could "dissolve" into the latter through the use of morphing animation.
Joseph and Dwyer [1982] concluded that the integration of realistic and abstract graphics may reduce achievement differences between students of different ability levels. This appears to interact with the concreteness or abstractness of the topic to be learned. In teaching about computers, for example, the parts of a computer can be highly concrete and easy to represent graphically, while the functions of a computer are quite abstract and therefore not as conveniently represented.
Rigney and Lutz [1976] elaborated effects of graphics in instruction by urging students to form mental images as they studied the material. Increased learning resulted from this combination. These results are supported by the research of Canelos [1979] who showed that training in visual imagery techniques resulted in better learning on a highly visual but real-world memory task.
Another factor about graphics needs to be considered for both research and learner evaluation. The amount learned from instruction using graphics can be suppressed and appear not to have been learned if the examination does not contain the graphics stimuli that were present during learning. Szabo, Dwyer & DeMelo [1981] showed that achievement scores were significantly higher when the same static graphics used in the instruction were incorporated into the testing.
Animation does not have the rich research history that is associated with color and graphics. This may be due to the fact that until recently, creation of animation required mainframe computers with complex software and high skill levels. Today, basic animations can be created using micros and relatively inexpensive and easy to use software.
A precursor to animation research may be found in early research on movies. The two major reviews of research on film [Hoban and Ormer, 1950; Reid & MacLennan, 1976] confirmed no significant difference patterns and set the stage to investigate specific variables within films which might contribute to effectiveness. In an early study using movies to provide animation, motion was shown to be superior to slides or sequential photos in presenting time- and motion-based concepts [Wells, 1973]. The reverse was true for concepts involving the presentation of spatial entities.
Baek and Layne [1988] compared learning conditions of text only, text plus graphics, and text plus animation. The adults in the study scored higher in the animation condition than either text or graphics. The animation condition also resulted in less study time, suggesting that animation results in more efficient learning. In another study with adult learners, Mayton [1991] found increased scores in the animation condition immediately after study; the effects persisted and were measurable one week later.
Rieber and Boyce [1990] compared animation-based instruction with carefully designed verbal presentations which used highly imaginative examples and illustrations. The results with an adult sample indicated no significant difference in the amount learned but the animation group required less time to retrieve the information they learned. One would have to ask whether the results would follow with children who may not have sufficient experience bases to accurately imagine the examples and illustrations used.
Of the 21 experimental studies which investigated animation in the context of computer based instruction, 11 showed full or partial significant effects for animation [Alesandrini, 1982; Alesandrini & Rigney, 1981; Baek & Layne, 1988; Carpenter & Just, 1992; Collins, Adams, & Pew, 1978; Kaiser, Proffitt & Anderson, 1985; Mayton, 1991: Rieber, 1989; Rieber and Boyce, 1990; Rigney & Lutz, 1976; Szabo & Poohkay, 1995]. Ten showed no significant differences [Caraballo, 1985; Caraballo-Rios, 1985; Doll, 1986; King, 1975; McCloskey & Kohl, 1983; Moore, Nawrocki, & Simutis, 1979; Peters & Daiker, 1982; Reed, 1985; Reiber, 1990; Reiber & Hannafin, 1988]. Any widespread belief in the superiority of animation over non-animated instruction within the context of computer based instruction is at odds with the research findings.
Theoretical Basis for the Study
Of the three major theories of learning [behaviorism, cognitive science, and maturation], the former has historically provided the basis for learning from visual displays. Since the early 1970's cognitive science underpinnings have been increasingly employed. The current study follows the cognitive science orientation which proposes that learning is represented in mental models and mental images which arise from memory [Kosslyn, 1980]. Information is represented in memory as mental models which are formed through coding of verbal and image information [Johnson-Laird, 1983]. Paivio [1986] proposed that cognition has become specialized to deal separately with verbal and image information. The two are somehow interconnected such that information encoded in both forms is stronger than if coded only in one [Clark & Paivio, 1991]. Szabo, Dwyer, and DeMelo [1981] showed that representation of both verbal and visual forms at the time of decoding further enhances the recall of information.
A further suggestion comes from Siliauskas [1986] who predicted the real contribution of animation may be in the realm of interactive graphics. In the present study, the subjects manipulated and interacted with the actual materials after observing animation or SVDs.
A behaviorist rationale for the study of animation [dynamic visual displays] is provided by Park & Hopkins [1993]. They suggested that animation serves to 1] cue and therefore gain the learner's attention, 2] influence an association between the verbal and visual components of the task, and 3] the resulting association would cue performance on unprompted applications.
Methodology
The purpose of this experimental study was to investigate effects of inclusion of animation in instruction on learning procedural and declarative skills associated with object-oriented authoring of CBI lessons by computer based instruction.
Design
The study consisted of a single factor, two-treatment level design with four dependent variables. The independent variable was instructional treatment consisting of text plus static graphics and text plus animated graphics. All instruction was presented on computer. Figure 1 presents the research design.
Achievement was defined as recall of information about the process [declarative], creation of the desired product [procedural], time to complete the task, and confidence about the use of computers.
Sample and Assignment
All 79 high school students were enrolled in introductory computer classes. Participation was a voluntary. Seventeen subjects' data was discarded due to incompleteness, leaving 62. Thirty six students were male and 26 were females.
Figure 1. Research Design.
Procedures
All students participated in pre-instructional activities related to using computers as part of their regular course. The instruction was delivered on a networked Macintosh computers from individual hard drives and did not use color. Figure 2 presents a sample display from the graphics version of the instruction. Based on Paivio's model, the visual and verbal presentations were presented simultaneously. This graphic was animated to illustrate the proper procedures for creating a title page for the animation version of the lesson. The animation lesson depicted the mouse actions and subsequent results from properly executing the task. Animation was accomplished with a DVD screen capture program known as Spectator™ and Quicktime was used for playback.
Instruments and Analysis of Data
The 30 item immediate recall [declarative knowledge] posttest included 15 items which used static and 15 which used animation and had a Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient of 0.84.. Procedural knowledge was assessed on a 10 point scale reflecting the replication of instructions in the final product. Time was defined as the total amount of time reading the instructions plus the time to complete the task. Computer confidence was assessed through a 10 question Likert scale which is part of the Computer Attitude Scale [Gressard and Loyd [1986]. Data were collected through computer collection routines and paper and pencil scores.
Analysis of data via t-test results indicated no differences in scores across the two treatment groups. The achievement means, standard deviations and sample sizes of the three treatment groups by entry ability levels are presented in Table 1 below.
Repeated measures ANOVA with repeated measures on questions was significant F(1,60)=0.01) with the static graphic group earning the higher score.
Figure 2. Instruction Screen with Graphic Support (SVD).
Table 1. Achievement score means, standard deviations and t-tests for two treatment groups on four study dependent measures.
| Static Group (n=32) | Dynamic Group (n=30) | t-tests | ||||
| Dependant Measures | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | t | p |
| Procedural | 7.78 | 6.15 | 7.90 | 2.56 | 0.18 | 0.85 |
| Declarative | 16.56 | 6.15 | 17.70 | 5.07 | 0.79 | 0.43 |
| Time (hours) | 0.63 | 0.20 | 0.68 | 0.16 | 1.11 | 0.28 |
| Confidence | 30.19 | 6.41 | 30.87 | 4.08 | 0.50 | 0.62 |
Table 2. Scores on static, dynamic and combined questions on recall posttest.
| Group | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD |
| Static Questions | 8.72 | 3.14 | 7.63 | 3.54 | 16.56 | 6.15 |
| Dynamic Questions | 9.33 | 2.38 | 8.40 | 3.28 | 17.70 | 5.07 |
| Combined | 9.02 | 2.80 | 8.00 | 3.41 | 17.11 | 5.64 |
Table 3. Correlations Among Dependent Variables
| Succes | Recall | Time | Confidence | |
| Success (procedural) | 1.00 | 0.54* | -0.20 | 0.34* |
| Immediate Recall (declarative) | 1.00 | -0.09 | 0.35* | |
| Time | 1.00 | -0.21 | ||
| Computer Confidence | 1.00 |
* p<0.05
The results of this study fail to provide support for the hypothesis that dynamic visual displays in the form of screen-capture animations increase learning either of a procedural or declarative task. Before this conclusion is accepted, several alternative plausible hypotheses need to be considered.
First, there is the suggestion that the task was too easy for the participants. This contradicts the findings of a pilot study in which the dynamic group performance was higher than the static group. The study should be replicated with either less advanced students or more difficult authoring tasks. As an extension, the study could be expanded in duration to permit additional variation, if it exists, to be observable.
Since the SVDs were snapshots of selected frames of the DVD used in this study, it might be hypothesized that the former captured the essence of the power of instruction and, combined with text, accounted for an equivalent amount of variance in the outcome scores. This hypothesis might be tested by varying the number of SVDs in proportion to the amount of DVD presented to the learners.
Previous research suggests that learning under CBI is as good as or better than learning under conventional instruction. Perhaps the learning effect of CBI was of sufficient magnitude that the treatment variance explained by the visuals was so small in comparison as to be undetectable by the current instruments.
The disparate findings between the static and dynamic portions of the recall examination in which the static group scored higher than the dynamic group has some implications. As multimedia penetrates the classroom in greater amounts, sooner or later, the frequency of dynamic visual testing will increase. Eventually it will become commonplace and students will learn to function in its presence. During the transition, however, perhaps educators should consider teaching students how to function under dynamic visual testing situations.
Finally, we observed a low correlation between computer confidence and both procedural and declarative knowledge scores, contrary to what one might expect. Given the historical high correlation between attitude and knowledge, this is a finding which should be explored further.
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